PART I | PART II | PART III | REFERENCES

Levels of Human Development

Applying holarchic principles to individual development, Wilber (2000) conceptualized human development as ten levels or spheres clustered into three realms: prepersonal, personal, and transpersonal. The prepersonal realm, corresponding roughly to the Great Nest spheres of matter and life, and the personal realm, corresponding roughly to the Great Nest sphere of mind, are corroborated by Western academic psychology, from Freud (1971) and Piaget (1977) to Mahler, Pine, and Bergman (1975) and Kohut (1977, 1984). Empirical evidence for the transpersonal realm, which corresponds to the Great Nest spheres of soul and spirit, rests primarily in the developmental mappings of the contemplative traditions, both East and West (Aurobindo, 1970; O'Brien, 1984). Wilber has used the terms levels, structures, and waves to refer to different aspects of the developmental stages. "Levels" connotes the qualitatively distinct nature of each stage, whereas "structure" underscores the integrated, holistic nature of each stage. We will use the term "wave" because it emphasizes the fluidity with which one stage flows into another.

Because the first three waves develop prior to the emergence of a stable, coherent, individuated self-sense, they are termed prepersonal, and psychological functioning in this realm is prerational. In the first sensoriphysical wave, the infant takes her first tentative steps toward individuation and develops an identity as a physical self . In the second phantasmic/emotional wave, the toddler develops a sense of his distinctly separate emotional self, capable of realizing that others have feelings that are not necessarily the same as his own. In the third wave of representational mind, the mental self emerges: What the child previously knew only through the senses, she now is capable of representing mentally. Piaget (1977) classified this as the preoperational period that provided the child access to an entirely new world of objects and ideas in both the past and the future.

Because the next three waves involve the strengthening and stabilization of a coherent, autonomous self, they are termed personal, and psychological functioning in this realm is rational. The fourth wave of rule/role mind corresponds to Piaget's (1977) concrete operations: The child at this stage develops the capacity to take the perspective (role) of others and assumes an identity as a role self . In the fifth formal-reflexive wave, corresponding to Piaget's (1977) formal operations, the child becomes able to think about thinking. This development enables the child for the first time to introspect, marking the emergence of a conscientious self. Whereas the fifth wave is still characterized by dichotomized, either/or thinking, the sixth vision-logic wave is integral-aperspectival: the individual can simultaneously hold multiple, apparently contradictory perspectives in his attention and, through synthesis and integration, can conceptualize networks of interactions among the various perspectives . In this wave, existential concerns characterize the self, which Wilber has labeled the centaur.

Whereas the previous waves tend to emerge without intentional effort, progressive emergence of each of the last four waves tends to require increasingly purposeful pursuit of contemplative practice. Because the last four waves involve increasing disidentification from a sense of self as isolated, separate, and individual, these waves are termed transpersonal -- including as well as beyond the personal. Psychological functioning in this realm is deemed transrational in that it involves direct and immediate apprehension without sensory or mental mediation. Readers are forewarned that they may have difficulty fully grasping the following description of any transpersonal realm that they have not directly experienced.

In the seventh psychic wave, psychic or other paranormal experiences, which include references to the natural, "gross" world, may or may not occur as one's identity expands to include all of cosmic nature; thus, one experiences nature mysticism . One's identity emerges as a universal self -- not to be confused with the psychotic adualism of the prepersonal realm. In the eighth subtle wave, gross referents are transcended in experiences of archetypal forms and patterns, interior luminosities and sounds, and extremely subtle currents of bliss. One's identity expands in a union of one's soul with deity; thus, one experiences deity mysticism . In Wilber's ninth causal wave, both the soul and deity are transcended as attention (the root-essence of mind) abides without strategic manipulation or inversion as "Witness-Consciousness" (Avabhasa, 1985). In the causal wave, one realizes the unmanifest source, ground, support, and cause of all of the previous waves, and one's identity abides as the unmanifest source of all arising phenomena. By contrast, in the tenth nondual wave -- which actually is not a discrete level apart from other levels, but rather is the reality, suchness, or condition of all levels -- Consciousness is seen to be not other than all arising conditional phenomena. In other words, Spirit and its manifestations, Consciousness and its display, Emptiness and Form, nirvana (the Ultimate Reality or Truth) and samsara (the conditional realm of suffering in which most people are engrossed) -- are all realized to be "not-two."

Wilber, Engler, and Brown (1986) have also posited that each wave of development, if unsuccessfully navigated, will produce its own specific pathology. For each of the ten waves respectively, these pathologies are psychoses, borderline/narcissistic personality disorders, neuroses, script pathologies, identity neuroses, existential pathologies, psychic disorders, subtle disorders, and causal disorders. Wilber et al. (1986) also have proposed treatment modalities for each of these pathologies, bringing potential order and harmony to the cacophony of psychological theories and treatment options available to mental health professionals. An important aspect of their model is a means by which a mental health professional can avoid the potentially therapeutic disaster of the pre-trans fallacy (Wilber, 1996) or other category errors -- conceptualizing and treating a phenomenon of one realm as if it were of another, such as diagnostic inflation of a psychotic (prepersonal) episode into a transpersonal one or, conversely, diagnostic reduction of a transpersonal episode into an existential (personal) or psychotic (prepersonal) one.

Finally, in conceptualizing the ten waves of development, Wilber (1995) has employed and extended concepts first posited by Chomsky (1969): deep and surface structures. Wilber has contended that the waves of development constitute deep structures that are universal, that is, present as potentials in all humans regardless of culture. Outward variations of the deep structures are surface structures, manifestations specific to given cultures. For example, the disciplines of mathematics, chemistry, and literature (surface) all depend on functioning within the formal-reflexive wave (deep). In the literary arena, whereas various cultures influence different contents in novels (surface), all good novels share certain features of the formal-reflexive wave, such as taking multiple perspectives (deep). Likewise, with spiritual phenomena: Although a Christian and a Hindu may experience spiritual communion with different entities -- Christ and Krishna, respectively (surface) -- both religious adherents are experiencing an archetypal image of the divine in human form, a manifestation of the subtle wave (deep).

Additional Concepts Pertaining to Human Development

Wilber (2000) described and mapped out more than two dozen different developmental lines, also referred to as "streams," that each proceed sequentially, yet quasi-independently, through the ten waves. For example, some of the developmental lines are cognition, object relations, morality, role-taking, psychosexuality, affect, creativity, altruism, needs, and worldview. Each line manifests in an identifiable way at each wave/level; however, the lines can and do proceed at different rates. Thus, a person may be relatively more developed in some lines and less developed in others (see Figure 2). Thus, although specific developmental lines and levels unfold sequentially, " overall development ...is far from a sequential, ladder-like, clunk-and-grind series of steps, but rather involves a fluid flowing of many waves and streams in the great River of Life" (Wilber, 2000, p. xvii).

Figure 2. Example of relationship between developmental lines and spheres. Reprinted from Wilber, K. (2000). Integral psychology. Boston: Shambhala, p. 31.

Temporary states of non-ordinary consciousness, in contrast to relatively stable transpersonal traits/levels/waves of development, have sparked much of the interest in the transpersonal field. Wilber (1997, 1999) has contended that anyone at any level of development can have a temporary experience (state) of any of the other levels . However, how that experience is interpreted and integrated is largely a function of one's predominant level of development . For example, a young child in the rule/role mind wave of concrete operations who has precognition of a disastrous event (psychic level) is more likely to conclude that she caused the event (rule/role mind) than to conclude that she temporarily gained access to a transpersonal source of information (psychic level).

In Wilber's (1997) view, "the self," as opposed to the structures of consciousness, "is 'where the action is' -- the dynamic process holding together the various developmental lines, establishing something of a cohesive whole" (p. 142). The self is the seat of a host of significant operations and capacities, such as identification (self-identity), organization (providing a sense of cohesion to the psyche), will (choosing and acting from one's level of development), defense (the employment of defense mechanisms), metabolism (psychological digestion of one's experiences), and navigation (ones' journey through the developmental labyrinth).

Within a given line of development at a specific level, an individual also may function within the framework of a given type such as those specified by the Enneagram, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, or even gender (Wilber, 1999c). Different types may exist for each of the various developmental lines, adding to the fluid and nonlinear appearance of overall self development.

We consider Wilber's model of human development to be both systematic and comprehensive. It integrates perspectives of Western psychology with those of both Western and Eastern contemplative traditions.

Spirituality

Wilber (1999c) has dealt with the perplexing issue of defining spirituality by identifying the five more common definitions found in the broad spiritual literature: 1) Spirituality pertains to the highest level of each of the developmental lines; 2) Spirituality is the sum total of the individual's development in all the developmental lines; 3) Spirituality is itself a separate developmental line; 4) Spirituality is an attitude, such as openness or love, that one can have at any developmental level; and 5) Spirituality involves peak experiences rather than developmental levels. He concluded that each of these definitions has value and that no one definition yet exists that incorporates the useful aspects of each of the five definitions.

Wilber also has postulated both translative/legitimate/exoteric and transformative/authentic/esoteric aspects of spirituality. Translative spirituality is similar to the systems theory concept of first order change whereby one reorganizes or replaces a surface structure while remaining at the same deep structure wave of development. Examples include elaboration of one's exoteric system -- reading more or attending workshops related to one's belief system -- or conversion from one exoteric system to another within the same developmental wave. According to Wilber (1997b) and Feuerstein (1997), translative spirituality is the more commonly observed function of religion: to fortify the self . Through an exoteric system of beliefs and rituals, people are helped to understand and perhaps minimize the inherent suffering of the separate self; thus, translative spirituality fosters feelings of security, comfort, consolation, and perhaps protection or fortification. Translative spirituality is legitimate because it provides a certain sense of legitimacy -- to one's beliefs about the world and one's place therein.

Transformative or authentic spirituality is similar to the systems theory concept of second order change whereby one progresses from one deep structure/wave of development to the next. An example is someone who, after sustained contemplative practice or in the wake of a well-integrated near-death experience, expands from the vision-logic wave of development into the subtle wave (and perhaps beyond). According to Wilber (1997b), transformative spirituality constitutes a less commonly observed function of religion: to deconstruct the self . Rather than consoling, fortifying, or legitimizing the self, it dismantles, transmutes, transforms, and liberates the self -- ultimately from its illusion of separateness -- through a series of deaths and rebirths of the self into ever more inclusive developmental waves. Authentic spirituality inquires into legitimate spirituality and concludes that the latter tends to entrench a person in one's current wave of development and, thus, prolong -- even if more comfortably -- the illusion of separateness that is, ironically, the actual source of suffering. In his glib way, Wilber (1999b) summarized that, in transformative spirituality, "the self is not made content. The self is made toast" (p. 28).

From the integral psychology perspective, both translative and transformative functions of spirituality are vitally important. Equally important is discrimination between the two because of their different goals and processes.

The Four Quadrants

The preceding material summarizes Wilber's views as of phase III in the evolution of his model. For a variety of reasons (Wilber, in press), Wilber (1995) undertook a critical expansion of his model. Considering various empirically supported hierarchical models in such areas as Western psychology, the natural sciences, spiritual traditions, economic structures, technological modes, linguistics, and cultural worldviews, he discovered that each fit into a four-quadrant model formed by the intersection of two axes: interior-exterior and individual-collective (see Figure 3). In essence, adequate description of any phenomenon requires the intentional, behavioral, cultural, and social perspectives--the four quadrants. With this expansion, his phase III developmental model, summarized above, became the upper left quadrant of his phase IV integral model.

Figure 3. The Great Nest with the Four Quadrants. Reprinted from Wilber, K. (1999). Collected Works of Wilber, vol. 4. Boston: Shambhala, p. 499.

The following description very briefly summarizes the four quadrants. To illustrate each quadrant, an example is offered from Boris Pasternak's (1958) novel, Dr. Zhivago : the love relationship between Yuri Zhivago and Lara from the time they met in the library to the time she left the country.

1. Upper Left: Interior-individual (intentional): the subjective, phenomenal dimension of individual consciousness: one's experience "from the inside." This quadrant includes sensations, perceptions, feelings, and thoughts that can be described in "I" language. Evolution within this quadrant is from irritability to sensation to perception to conceptual operations to formal operations to aperspectival vision logic to transpersonal levels. Prominent theorists include Sigmund Freud, C. G. Jung, Jean Piaget, Aurobindo, Plotinus, Gautauma Buddha. Example: Both Yuri and Lara feel "in love" with each other; each experiences intense pleasure in and desires proximity to the other; Yuri is inspired to write prolific poetry; when separated, each experiences agonizing grief; each feels willing to sacrifice personal gratification for the well-being of the other.
2. Upper Right: Exterior-individual (behavioral): the objective, "scientific" perspective of individual structure and/or behavior as viewed "from the outside." This quadrant includes structures and processes that can be described in "it" language. Evolution in this quadrant is from atoms to molecules to cells to organic systems to reptilian brain stem to limbic system to complex neo-cortex. Prominent theorists/approaches include B. F. Skinner, John Watson, John Locke, empiricism, behaviorism, physics, biology. Example: If measured, Yuri's and Lara's blood streams would show increased levels of phenylethylamine (the endogenous "infatuation" hormone) and endogenous opiates that serve as positive reinforcement for thinking about and being with the other. When Lara's life is endangered by remaining in the country, an EEG of Yuri would show increased neo-cortical activity as he uses reason and benevolent deception to persuade her to leave.

Nothing exists isolated in a vacuum. Each holon relates in one way or another with other holons in its system/community. Thus, in addition to the singular perspectives of the first two quadrants, the plural perspectives of the following two quadrants are essential.

3. Lower Left: Interior-collective (cultural): the intersubjective dimension of collective consciousness: the group's experience "from the inside." This perspective requires a sympathetic resonance common only to members of a given system/community--shared world views, customs, linguistic semantics, meanings, and communal values--that are described in "we" language. Evolution in this quadrant is from archaic to magic to mythic to rational to trans-rational. Prominent theorists include Thomas Kuhn, Wilhelm Dilthey, Jean Gebser, Max Weber, Jurgen Habermas, Hans-Georg Gadamer. Example: Although Yuri and Lara each are married to someone else, Yuri in particular experiences guilt regarding his relationship with Lara, which appears to indicate that he has internalized the early 20 ^th century Russian cultural moré prohibiting adultery.
4. Lower Right: Exterior-collective (social): the interobjective, "scientific" perspective of the collective as viewed "from the outside." This quadrant includes objective aspects of a society, such as architecture, transportation systems, governmental systems, and communication systems, as exemplified by buildings, subways, democracy, and the internet, respectively. These phenomena are described in "its" language. Evolution in this quadrant is from foraging tribes to agrarian empires to industrial nation states to planetary information societies. Prominent theorists/approaches include Talcott Parsons, August Comte, Karl Marx, Gerhard Lenski, and systems theory. Example: Yuri and Lara's relationship exists in interaction with its collective context: the agrarian-to-industrial sociopolitical struggle of the Russian revolution. Personal relationship is subjugated to revolutionary cause when soldiers kidnap Yuri and force him to serve as a physician at the battle front; thus, involuntarily and without warning, the lovers are separated for two years.

As the example illustrates, each quadrant provides a different perspective on a given phenomenon, each of which is valid for that quadrant. Implications of this model are far more complex and far-reaching than is appropriate to explore in this article. Suffice it to summarize that each holon within a given hierarchy exists not only in relationship with the holons above and below it but also interdependently with holons in the other three quadrants. In a comprehensive integral vision, development is not conceived merely along the dimensions of levels, lines, and states (Wilber III; Upper Left quadrant) but also is understood as it relates to the other three quadrants (Wilber-IV). No holon exists in isolation, either within its own quadrant or in relationship with other quadrants. Each person and phenomenon has a subjective, an objective, an intersubjective, and an interobjective aspect. Even the simple process of feeling hungry and planning what to eat (intentional) involves certain brain structures and neurochemistry (behavioral); occurs in a context indicating when, what, and how to eat (cultural); and utilizes some technological means to produce the meal (social) (Wilber, 1997).

PART I | PART II | PART III | REFERENCES